Daniel M. Abramson, Obsolescence: An Architectural History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016); Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative, ed., Architecture in Development: Systems and the Emergence of the Global South (New York: Routledge, 2022).
See Sibel Bozdoğan, Panayiota Pyla, and Petros Phokaides, “Introduction,” Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt (New York: Routledge, 2022), xix- xliii. This book exposes cases of how leisure tourism radically transformed physical landscapes, from sandy beaches to littoral roads and marinas, and from beachside hotels, to camp sites, and vacation villages; and how it also reshaped social and geopolitical landscapes (from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea and Baltic coasts; and from California and the Caribbean to Southeast Asia).
Harry G Clement and Checchi and Company, The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1961); Chuck Y. Gee and Matt. Lurie, eds., The Story of the Pacific Asia Travel Association (San Francisco, CA: Pacific Asia Travel Association, 2001), 69.
Clement and Checchi and Company, The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East, 18.
Characterized as a figure who “personified mainstream economics in the second half of the twentieth century… {and was} considered the incarnation of the economics ‘establishment,’” Samuelson combined Milton Keynes’s concept of the multiplier as an increase in total national income induced by governmental spending with Alvin Hansen’s acceleration principle to determine the relationship between governmental deficit spending and induced private consumption and private investment. Samuelson turned that relationship into a formula and provided a way to quantify the factor of multiplication. Paul A. Samuelson, “Interactions between the Multiplier Analysis and the Principle of Acceleration,” The Review of Economics and Statistics 21, no. 2 (1939): 75–78, https://doi.org/10.2307/1927758. See also: William A. Barnett, “An Interview with Paul A. Samuelson,” Macroeconomic Dynamics 8, no. 04 (September 2004): 519, ➝.
Clement and Checchi and Company, The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East, 18–28. See also Habibullah Khan, Chou Fee Seng, and Wong Kwei Cheong, “Tourism Multiplier Effects on Singapore,” Annals of Tourism Research 17, no. 3 (January 1, 1990): 408–18, ➝.
Foreword by Luther H. Hodges, the US Secretary of Commerce in Clement and Checchi and Company, The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East, iii.
Gee and Lurie, The Story of the Pacific Asia Travel Association; PATA, “This Is PATA: A Summary of 40 Years of Progress,” in AMIC-PATA Asian Tourism Communicators Training Workshop (Singapore: Asian Media Information & Communication Centre, 1992).
Clement and Checchi and Company, The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East, xiv.
Robert E. Wood, “Tourism and Underdevelopment in Southeast Asia,” Journal of Contemporary Asia 9, no. 3 (January 1979): 274–87, ➝; James E. Potter, A Room with a World View: 50 Years of Inter-Continental Hotels and Its People: 1946-1996 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1996).
In the two decades from the mid-1950s, PATA conferences were held in Asian countries including the Philippines (1954 and 1971), Japan (1956), Singapore (1959), Hong Kong (1962 and 1977), Indonesia (1963 and 1974), Korea (1965 and 1979), India (1966 and 1978), Taiwan (1968), Thailand (1969), and Malaysia (1972). Khir Johari, the Minster of Trade and Industry of Malaysia who led the organization of the 1972 PATA conference in Malaysia noted that the conference helped to “project Malaysia’s image to the world of Tourism.” PATA in Malaysia, 1972 (Kuala Lumpur: Dept. of Tourism, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Kuala Lumpur, 1972), u.p. For a list of the conferences, see Gee and Lurie, The Story of the Pacific Asia Travel Association.
These five countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Johannes C. Franz, “The Seaside Resorts of Southeast Asia (Part One),” Tourism Recreation Research 10, no. 1 (January 1, 1985): 17, ➝.
See for example, Gökçeçiçek Savasır and Zeynep Tuna Ultav, “Mobility, Modernity, and Hospitality: TUSAN Tourism Initiative in Postwar Turkey,” in Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt, eds. Sibel Bozdoǧan, Panayiota Pyla, and Petros Phokaides (London, New York: Routledge, 2022): 215-231; José Vela Castillo, and Sıla Karatas, “Transnational Experts and the Architecture of Tourism Industry in Francoist Spain,” in Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt, eds. Sibel Bozdoǧan, Panayiota Pyla, and Petros Phokaides (London, New York: Routledge, 2022): 151-166; Stavros Alifragkis, and Emilia Athanassiou. “Educating Greece in Modernity: Post-War Tourism and Western Politics,” Journal of Architecture 18, no. 5 (2013): 699–720.
In 1963, the United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism recommended to UN specialized agencies, regional economic commissions, and member state governments—especially the ones in “developing countries”—to actively develop tourism and international travel. These recommendations relied on the economic report prepared by UN’s consultant Kurt Krapf who cited extensively the 1961-Checchi report and analysed the multiplier effect of tourism. See, United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism, Rome, 21 August - 5 September 1963: Recommendations on International Travel and Tourism (New York: UN, 1963); Kurt Krapf, Tourism as a Factor in Economic Development: Role and Importance of International Tourism (New York: UN, 1963).
See Panayiota Pyla, “Leisure and Geo-economics: The Hilton and Other Development Regimes in the Mediterranean South,” in Systems and the South: Architecture in Development, ed. Aggregate (Arindam Dutta, Ateya Khorakiwala, Ayala Levin, Fabiola López-Durán, and M. Ijlal Muzaffar) (London: Routledge, 2022), 381–400.
Dimitris Ioannides, “Planning for International Tourism in Less Developed Countries: Toward Sustainability?” Journal of Planning Literature 9, no.3 (February 1995): 237; See also, Douglas G. Pearce, Tourist Development (New York: Longman, 1989).
H. David Davis and James A. Simmons, “World Bank Experience with Tourism Projects,” Tourism Management 3, no. 4 (December 1982): 212–17, ➝.
Ibid., 214.
Checchi and Company, Report on the Establishment of a Development Bank in Cyprus (Washington: Department of State: Agency for International Development, 1962).
Ibid, 2.
See Panayiota Pyla and Dimitris Venizelos, “Towers on a Golden Coast: Competing Visions of Development on Famagusta’s Beach”, in Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt, eds. Sibel Bozdoǧan, Panayiota Pyla, and Petros Phokaides (London, New York: Routledge, 2022): 133-151.
The multiplier effect was well received in Cyprus at the time. It was used by the Greek-based planning firm Doxiadis Associates in a major tourist study, titled: Future Development of Tourism in Cyprus, March 1968, commissioned by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Republic of Cyprus.
Throughout the 1960s there were serious episodes of ethnic inter-communal conflict among Greek and Turkish Cypriots and on top of that existed a civil strife within the Greek Cypriot community. It was exacerbated after 1967 when a military Junta in Greece came to power and began supporting paramilitary groups against Cyprus president Makarios. All this eventually led to a coup d'état in July 1974, which in turn led to a Turkish invasion and the division of the island along ethnic lines, up to this day.
See, Panayiota Pyla, and Petros Phokaides. “‘Dark and Dirty’ Histories of Leisure and Architecture: Varosha’s Past and Future.” Architectural Theory Review 24, no. 1 (2020): 27–45, ➝.
John Bryden and Mike Faber, “Multiplying the Tourist Multiplier,” Social and Economic Studies 20, 1 (March, 1971): 61-82.
Emanuel de Kadt, ed., Tourism: Passport to Development? (Oxford: Oxford University Press for UNESCO and World Bank, 1979).
Behind this decision were the implementation challenges and limited economic success of the tourist projects with which the Bank became involved, the turbulent economic climate after the 1973-oil crisis, but also the rising awareness of tourism’s social and environmental impact. H. David Davis and James A. Simmons, “World Bank Experience with Tourism Projects,” 212.
Dimitris Ioannides, “Planning for International Tourism in Less Developed Countries: Toward Sustainability?”, 10.
Kerry B. Godfrey, “The Evolution of Tourism Planning in Cyprus: Will Recent Changes Prove Sustainable?”, Cyprus Review 8, no. 1 (1996): 111-133.
In Cyprus, for years, urban water was heavily rationed, and water for irrigation was so limited that the state incentivised the abandonment of traditional agricultural production (such as citrus trees) because they were more water intensive.
UNDP and World Tourism Organization, Comprehensive Tourism Development Plan: Cyprus: Final Report. (Madrid: UNDP: World Tourism Organization, 1988).
Cited in Lois Jensen, “Cyprus: Boom in Tourism, Battle on the Environment.” World Development 2 (1989): 13.
For a detailed analysis, see Serkan Karas and Panayiota Pyla, “Promise of Water Abundance and the Normalisation of Water-Intensive Development in Cyprus,” Water Alternatives 15, 3 (2022): 709-732.
This was an extension of a state and UN-led program of dam construction launched island-wide after the country’s independence that was premised on water-intensive approach that served the exploitation and consumption rather than protection of scarce resources. See Panayiota Pyla and Petros Phokaides, “An Island of Dams: Ethnic Conflict and Supra-National Claims in Cyprus,” in Water, Technology and the Nation-State, ed. Filippo Menga and Erik Swyngedouw (London and New York: Routledge, Earthscan from Routledge, 2018), 115–130.
Much has been written about tourism development in Bali. See, for example, Jiat-Hwee Chang, “The Anaesthetics of Tourism: Bali, Internationalism, and Post-Conflict Developments,” in Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt, ed. Panayiota Pyla, Sibel Bozdoğan, and Petros Phokaides (London, New York: Routledge, 2022), 36–51.
Michel Picard, Bali: Cultural Tourism and Touristic Culture, trans. Diana Darling (Singapore: Archipelago, 1996); Adrian Vickers, Bali, a Paradise Created (Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing, 2012).
Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis, Bali’s Silent Crisis: Desire, Tragedy, and Transition (Lanham, Md: Lexington Books, 2009), 55–59.
Raymond Noronha, “Paradise Reviewed: Tourism in Bali,” in Tourism: Passport to Development?, ed. Emanuel de Kadt (Oxford: Oxford University Press for UNESCO and World Bank, 1979), 177–204.
Lewis and Lewis, Bali’s Silent Crisis, 54; Ruben Rosenberg Colorni, Land Grabbing in Bali: A Research Brief (Amsterdam: Hands on Land for Food Sovereignty and Transnational Institute, 2018), 7.
Peter Scriver and Amit Srivastava, “Cultivating Bali Style: A Story of Asian Becoming in the Late 20th Century,” in Southeast Asia’s Modern Architecture: Questions in Translation, Epistemology and Power, ed. Jiat-Hwee Chang and Imran bin Tajudeen (Singapore: NUS Press, 2019), 85–111; Philip Goad, Architecture Bali: Architectures of Welcome (Sydney: Pesaro Publishing, 2000); Made Widjaya, Modern Tropical Garden Design (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2007).
Stroma Cole, “A Political Ecology of Water Equity and Tourism: A Case Study from Bali,” Annals of Tourism Research 39, no. 2 (April 2012): 1221–41, ➝.
Lewis and Lewis, Bali’s Silent Crisis, 54–70.