Kosmos

See in particular the resemblance to the Elon Musk renderings shown here: Tariq Maliq, “Elon Musk Teases Images of SpaceX ‘Moon Base Alpha’ and ‘Mars City,’” Space.com, September 28, 2017, ➝.

Ryan Gallagher, “The U.S. Spy Hub in the Heart of Australia,” The Intercept, August 19, 2017, ➝.

Asif A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974. (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div., Office of Policy and Plans, 2000), 243.

Charles Ferson Durant Scrapbook, box 233, AIAA History Collection, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

See for example the entry for “Cosmos” in ed. Charles P. Krauth, A Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences (New York: Sheldon & Company, 1881), 621.

Deane Simpson, “The Vostok Cosmonauts: Training the New Soviet Person,” inTop of Form 2001: Building for Space Travel, ed. John Zukowsky (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001), 108.

Alexander von Humboldt, Kosmos: A General Survey of Physical Phenomena of the Universe (London: H. Baillière, 1845), 22.

John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book I, line 650. Cited by the Oxford English Dictionary as the modern “Space.” Also Book II, lines 1052 and 1045.

Melvin B. Zifsein, Flight: A Panorama of Aviation (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 9.

For a larger exposition of this universal definition of “space,” see Nicholas de Monchaux, Spacesuit: Fashioning Apollo (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 12–26.

P. Reyner Banham, Scenes in America Deserta (Salt Lake City: Gibbs M. Smith, 1982), 44.

Lauren Benton and Benjamin Straumann, “Acquiring Empire by Law: From Roman Doctrine to Early Modern European Practice,” Law and History Review 28, no. 1 (February 2010): 1–38.

Hakluyt Society, Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, 2 vols., second series, 76–77, ed. E.G.R. Taylor (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1935), I, 178.

Ibid., 331.

John Winthrop, quoted by David Grayson Allen, “Vacuum Domicilium: The Social and Cultural Landscape of Seventeenth-Century New England,” in New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, Vol 1, eds. Jonathan L. Fairbanks and Robert F. Trent (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1982).

Ironically, while Locke recounts the principle of ownership through improvement in his Second Treatise on Government of 1790, his intent was as much to emphasize the sovereign right of English citizens over lands under their improvement as it was to provide any rationale for colonial expropriation. See Paul Corcoran, “John Locke on the Possession of Land: Native Title vs. the ‘Principle of Vacuum Domicilium,’” Proceedings, Australasian Political Studies Association Annual Conference, (Melbourne: Monash University, September 2007).

Richard S. Dunn and Laetitia Yeandle, eds., The Journal of John Winthrop, 1630–1649 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996) 283.

Lawrence J. Vale, From the Puritans to the Projects: Public Housing and Public Neighbors (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 23.

James Warren Springer, “American Indians and the Law of Real Property in Colonial New England,” The American Journal of Legal History 30, no. 1 (January 1986): 56.

The Dutch had landed on the north coast of what they called New Holland as early as 1606. It was officially named “Australia” by its British occupiers in 1830, a half-century after the establishment of the first penal colony at Sydney in 1783.

Logbook of Lieut. James Cook (1770), The British Library, Add Ms 27885, f. 55.

Apsley Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in The World: Antarctica, 1910–1913 (Toronto: Penguin Classics, 2006), 49.

Klaus Dodds, Alan D. Hemmings, and Peder Roberts. Handbook on the Politics of Antarctica (London: Edward Elgar, 2017).

Roger Launius, “Establishing Open Rights in the Antarctic and Outer Space: Cold War Rivalries and Geopolitics in the 1950s and 1960s,” in Dodds et al., 217–231. I am grateful to Dr. Launius, as ever, for drawing my attention to this text and these larger connections.

R. Bulkeley, “Origins of the International Geophysical Year,” in S. Barr and C. Luedecke, eds., The History of the International Polar Years (IPYs): From Pole to Pole (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2010), 235–238.

Ibid.

James A. Van Allen, (1983), “Genesis of the International Geophysical Year,” EOS 64(50): 977–977.

Ibid.

Barr and Luedecke, History of the International Polar Years.

Walter Sullivan, “James A. Van Allen, Discoverer of Earth-Circling Radiation Belts, Is Dead at 91,” New York Times, Aug 10, 2006, C14.

Until the 1980s, satellite surveillance photography still used physical film, which necessitated complex airborne rescue missions of the returning celluloid in protective capsules. See Pat Norris, Spies in the Sky. Surveillance Satellites in War and Peace (Berlin: Springer Praxis Books, 2008).

See Launius, ibid; also The Report to the President by the Technological Capabilities Panel of the Science Advisory Committee, Vol. II, Meeting the Threat of Surprise Attack (Washington, DC, February 14, 1955), 151. Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Policy Papers, Box 16, Folder NSC 5522, Technological Capabilities Panel, Eisenhower Presidential Library.

Howard Jones, Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1945 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009), 80.

Siddiqui, 168.

Walter A. McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997) 112–132.

Unlike Explorer and subsequent US satellites, which used transistor electronics, Sputnik had a pressurized atmosphere, the main purpose of which was to prevent damage to the vacuum tubes that constituted its electronic equipment. As the vacuum of space was inevitably more empty than the vacuum achieved by Russian tube-making machinery, the Soviet “vacuum” tubes would otherwise have exploded. See M. K. Tikhonravov, “The Creation of the First Artificial Earth Satellite: Some Historical Details,” first presented in Russian at the 24th International Astronautical Congress at Baku, Azerbaijan (then part of the Soviet Union); translated in 1994 by Peter A. Ryan and published in the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 47 (1994): 191–194.

McDougall, 56.

On May 27, 1967, 90% of Australians approved a referendum on the question “Do you approve the proposed law for the alteration of the Constitution entitled—‘An Act to alter the Constitution so as to omit certain words relating to the People of the Aboriginal Race in any State and so that Aboriginals are to be counted in reckoning the Population’?” Since Australia was administered as six separate colonies until Federation under the Australian Constitution in 1901, a variety of regimes had governed Aboriginal citizenship until that time in the separate states, most restrictively in Queensland and Western Australia, which had the largest number of Aboriginal residents—the section of the constitution in question was designed so that these numbers did not inflate their parliamentary representation—and in the Northern Territories, which remained under federal control. Aboriginal Australians had, technically, the right to vote in all federal elections from 1948; however this was optional and only became mandatory, as for all other Australians, in 1983. It is a popular misconception that the 1967 referendum established the Aboriginal right to vote; however it was undeniably an instrumental and essential step toward full citizenship rights. See Australian Special Broadcasting Service, “Myths persist about the 1967 referendum” ➝.

See Australian Electoral Commission “Electoral Milestones for Indigenous Australians,” ➝.

High Court of Australia, Mabo v. Queensland (No 2) [1992

HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1 (June 3, 1992).

Ibid., sections 48 and 56.

➝.

Explorer 2 did not successfully launch due to the failure of its Jupiter rocket.

James A. Van Allen, Origins of Magnetospheric Physics (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2004).

Even then, space station astronauts are instructed to shelter in the thickest portions of the station during active periods of solar storms. See Nola Taylor Redd, “Radiation Remains a Problem for Any Mission to Mars” Smithsonian.com, May 17, 2016, ➝; and Tony C. Slaba, Christopher J. Mertens, and Steve R. Blattnig, Radiation Shielding Optimization on Mars, 2013, ➝.

M. D. Delp et al., “Apollo Lunar Astronauts Show Higher Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: Possible Deep Space Radiation Effects on the Vascular Endothelium.” Sci. Rep. 6 (2016).

Ibid. It is theorized that the solar wind, interacting with the lightweight aluminum, of which spacecraft substantially consist, produced charged particles particularly destructive to DNA and cellular reproduction of fragile cardiovascular membranes.

Slaba et. al, Radiation Sheilding.

Redd, “Radiation Remains a Problem.”

Richard F. Feynmann, “Personal Observations on the Reliability of the Shuttle,” Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Volume 2, Appendix F (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1986): ➝.

The NASA-convened Committee on Symbolic Activities for the First Lunar Landing, gathered in February of 1969 and briefly considered the use of a United Nations Flag, but its own mission statement charged it with envisioning activities to “signalize the first lunar landing as an historic forward step of all mankind that has been accomplished by the United States.” Anne M. Platoff, “Where No Flag Has Gone Before: Political and Technical Aspects of Placing a Flag on the Moon,” NASA Contractor Report 188251, August 1993.

Ibid.

Col. Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin, Jr. with Wayne Warga, Return to Earth (New York: Random House, 1973), 239. Recent evidence from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter suggests other flags on the moon, or at least their staffs, may still be standing, but suggests confirmation of Aldrin’s report of the Apollo 11 site. See Mark Robinson, “Question Answered!” July 27, 2012, website of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University: ➝.

Tony Reichart, “Finding Apollo,” Air & Space Magazine, September 2008.

Paul D. Spudis, “Faded Flags on the Moon,” Air & Space Magazine, July 2011; also James Fincannon, “Six Flags on the Moon: What is Their Current Condition?” Apollo Lunar Surface Journal, 21 April 2012, ➝.

Morton Rasmussen et al., “An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia” Science 22 (September 2011).

Musk himself has referred to his Mars schemes as a “backup drive for civilization.” Chris Heath, “How Elon Musk Plans on Reinventing the World (and Mars),” GQ Magazine, December 2015, ➝.

Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in the World, 49.