G. K. Dow and C. G. Reed, “The Origins of Sedentism: Climate, Population, and Technology,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 119 (2015): 56–71.
T. Douglas Price, “Social Inequality at the Origins of Agriculture,” in Foundations of Social Inequality (Boston, MA: Springer US, 1995), 129–51. See also R. Lewin, “A Revolution of Ideas in Agricultural Origins,” Science 240, no. 4855 (1988): 984; T.D. Price and J.A. Brown, “Aspects of Hunter-Gatherer Complexity,” in Prehistoric Hunters-Gatherers (Academic Press, 1985), 3–20; Robert L. Kelly, The Lifeways of Hunter-Gatherers: The Foraging Spectrum (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
In particular, climate change during the Holocene period, which led to decreased variance in environmental conditions, has emerged as the most important driver in human habitation shifts, driving the transition from temporary, “mobile foraging” nomadism to permanent “sedentary foraging” settlements.
Eleanor M. Scerri et al., “Tropical Forests in the Deep Human Past,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 377, no. 1849 (2022): 2–4.
In hand and feet extremities, blood flow rates can vary by a factor of thirty. B. W. Olesen, “Thermal Comfort,” Technical Review 2 (1982): 30.
Olesen, “Thermal Comfort,” 6–12; S. Robinson and A.H. Robinson, “Chemical Composition of Sweat,” Physiological Reviews 34, no. 2 (1954): 202–03; R. W. Newman, “Why Man is Such a Sweaty and Thirsty Naked Animal: A Speculative Review,” Human Biology 42, no. 1 (1970): 17.
W. Berry Lyons et al., “The Hydrogeochemistry of Shallow Groundwater from Lut Desert, Iran: The Hottest Place on Earth,” Journal of Arid Environments 178 (2020): 1; Paul J. Chestovich et al., “Temperature Profiles of Sunlight-Exposed Surfaces in a Desert Climate: Determining the Risk for Pavement Burns,” Journal of Burn Care & Research 44, no. 2 (2023): 438–45; P.O. Fanger, “Assessment of Man’s Thermal Comfort in Practice,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 30, no. 4 (1973): 315.
Andrew Best et al., “Diversity and Evolution of Human Eccrine Sweat Gland Density,” Journal of Thermal Biology 84 (2019): 332.
Small window air-conditioners use between 400–700 watts per hour.
Daniel E. Lieberman, “Human Locomotion and Heat Loss: an Evolutionary Perspective,” Comprehensive Physiology 5, no. 1 (2015): 99.
A broad range of human sweating rates and changes in sweat composition are primarily driven by individual temperature thresholds and thermal sensitivity, modified by individual factors such as age, diet, menstrual states, health states, genetic traits, and environmental factors including altitude and microgravity. Lindsay B. Baker, “Physiology of Sweat Gland Function: The Roles of Sweating and Sweat Composition in Human Health,” Temperature 6, no. 3 (2019): 216.
Laura Caitlyn Hatcher, “Chemical Communication: The Effects of Stress-Induced Apocrine Sweat on Human Perceptions and Interactions,” (PhD diss., Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College, 2016); Hannah Della Bosca, “Sweat Speaks: Stories of Embodiment, Emotion, and Erasure on a Heating Planet,” Emotion, Space and Society 53 (2024): 101051.
Gordon Waitt and Elyse Stanes, “Sweating Bodies: Men, Masculinities, Affect, Emotion,” Geoforum 59 (2015): 30–38.
Mae-ling Lokko, “Hot Air Rising,” Digestion (e-flux Architecture, September 2022), ➝. See also Olesen, “Thermal Comfort,” 19; Health of Munition Workers Committee, Final Report: Industrial Health and Efficiency (London: HMSO, 1918); G. A. Atkinson, “Building in the Tropics,” Royal Institute of British Architects Journal 57 (1950); G. A. Atkinson, “Warm Climates and Building Design,” Colonial Building Notes 12 (1953).
Indoor air movement was restricted to a maximum of 0.24 m/s to avoid complaints about draft. C.P. Yaglou, “The Comfort Zone for Men at Rest and Stripped to the Waist,” Transactions of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers 33 (1927): 165–79; F. C. Houghten and C. P. Yaglou, “Determination of the Comfort Zone,” Transactions of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers 29 (1923); M. Fountain and E. A. Arens, “Air Movement and Thermal Comfort,” ASHRAE Journal 35, no. 8 (1993): 27.
Olesen, “Thermal Comfort,” 6.
Apart from initial increases in the 1970s and 80s to account for summer conditions, which increased air velocities to 0.36 and 0.25 m/s respectively, air movement limits in the ASHRAE-55 comfort standard remained a conservative 0.15 m/s into the 1990s. F. H. Rohles et al., “Ceiling Fans Extenders of the Summer Comfort Envelope,” ASHRAE Transactions 89 (1983): 245–63; D. G. Scheatzle et al., “Extending the Summer Comfort Envelope with Ceiling Fans in Hot, Arid Climates,” ASHRAE Transactions 95 (1989): 269–80; S. Tanabe and K. Kimura, “Thermal Comfort Requirements Under Hot and Humid Conditions,” Proceeding of ASHRAE Far East Conference, Singapore (September 1987): 3–21.
Tanabe and Kimura, “Thermal Comfort Requirements Under Hot and Humid Conditions,” 6. See also Yaglou, “The Comfort Zone for Men at Rest and Stripped to the Waist,” 165–79.
Richard J. de Dear and Gail S. Brager, “Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Revisions to ASHRAE Standard 55,” Energy and Buildings 34, no. 6 (2002): 549–61; Richard J. de Dear et al., “Progress in Thermal Comfort Research Over the Last Twenty Years,” Indoor Air 23, no. 6 (2013): 442–61.
Richard J. de Dear and Gail S. Brager, “Developing an Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort and Preference,” ASHRAE Transactions 104, no. 1 (1998). See also ASHRAE Standard: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (2004); Fergus Nichol and Michael Humphreys, "New Standards for Comfort and Energy Use in Buildings," Building Research & Information 37, no. 1 (2009): 68–73.
Robert M. Malina and Bertis B. Little, “Physical Activity: The Present in the Context of the Past,” American Journal of Human Biology 20, no. 4 (2008): 373–74.
W. D. van Marken Lichtenbelt et al., “Cold-Activated Brown Adipose Tissue in Healthy Men,” New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. 15 (2009): 1505–07.
Leyla E. McCurdy et al., “Using Nature and Outdoor Activity to Improve Children’s Health,” Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 40, no. 5 (2010): 105–06.
X. Liu et al., “Annual Performance of Liquid Desiccant Based Independent Humidity Control HVAC System,” Applied Thermal Engineering 26, nos. 11–12 (2006): 1198–1207.
P. S. Burge, “Sick Building Syndrome,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 61, no. 2 (2004): 185–90.
Mae-ling Lokko, “Colonization of Air,” in Nature of Enclosure, ed. Jeffrey Nesbitt (Actar Publishers, 2022). See also Mae-ling Lokko, “Biomaterial Imaginaries,” AD Architectural Design: Biodesign in Architecture 96, no. 1 (2026): 49.
Alexandra R. Rempel and Alan W. Rempel, “Intrinsic Evaporative Cooling by Hygroscopic Earth Materials,” Geosciences 6, no. 3 (2016): 38.
Mae-ling Lokko and Alexandra Rempel, “Intrinsic Evaporative Cooling and Weather-Responsive Natural Ventilation for Adaptive Thermal Comfort in Tropical Buildings,” International Building Physics Conference, Syracuse: NY. IBPC (2018): 1415–16.
Fernando Pacheco-Torgal et al., eds., Toxicity of Building Materials (Elsevier, 2012), 9. See also Xiaoxiao Xu et al., “Bamboo Construction Materials: Carbon Storage and Potential to Reduce Associated CO2 Emissions,” Science of the Total Environment 814 (2022): 12.
Mae-ling Lokko, “Re-fusing: On Heat Regimes and Material Circularity,” Material Acts (e-flux Architecture, November 2024), ➝.
Richard de Dear, “Revisiting an Old Hypothesis of Human Thermal Perception: Alliesthesia,” Building Research & Information 39, no. 2 (2011): 108–17; Thomas Parkinson and Richard de Dear, “Thermal Pleasure in Built Environments: Physiology of Alliesthesia,” Building Research & Information 43, no. 3 (2015): 288–301.
Kathleen Scanlan, “Seeing Women in Stone: A Spatial Analysis of Lithic Technology and Use-Wear to Identify a Norton Tradition Ena on the Kvichak River, Bristol Bay, Alaska,” Journal of Northwest Anthropology 55, no. 1 (2021).
Kaarina Kailo, “Native Elders on the Sweat Lodge Today,” in Sauna Culture, Sweat and Spirituality: On the Architectonics and Cosmology of Sacred Space (Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025), 165.
Margaret Lantis, “The Social Culture of the Nunivak Eskimo,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 35, no. 3 (1946): 196.
Ashfaque Ahmad et al., “Bathing in History: A Comprehensive Study of the Ḥammām (Bathhouse) at Qutb Shahi Heritage Park, Hyderabad,” International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research 11, no. 1 (2024): 617.
Mahboubeh Mahlouji et al., “Sweating as a Preventive Care and Treatment Strategy in Traditional Persian Medicine,” Galen Medical Journal 9 (2020): e2003.
Julie Peteet, The Hammam Through Time and Space (Syracuse University Press, 2024), 218–33.
Peteet, The Hammam Through Time and Space, 216–18.
