Humberto R. Maturana, Biology of Cognition, 1970, Reprinted in Humberto R. Maturana and Francisco Varela, Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1980).
Phillip Elmer-DeWitt, Time Magazine August 5, 1985.
Norman Badler also conducted research on the first digital human figure known as JACK. Developed for animation purposes the avatar has been used in ergonomic design software to test human centered environments and objects before they go into production. The development and use of JACK comes with a set of critical questions on the necessity to standardize the human for computation and the resulting exclusion of bodies. For more on this, see Simone C. Niquille, “SimFactory,” Artificial Labor (e-flux Architecture, September 22, 2017), ➝.
Stephen Platt and Norman Badler, “Animating Facial Expressions,” ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics (1981).
Carl-Herman Hjortsjö, Man’s face and mimic language. (Lund: Studen Litteratur, 1970).
Paul Clinton, “Review: 'Polar Express' a creepy ride,” CNN.com, November 10, 2004, ➝.
➝.
Netflix, “How The Irishman’s Groundbreaking VFX Took Anti-Aging To the Next Level,” YouTube, January 4, 2020, ➝.
Cao Chen, Yanlin Weng, Shun Zhou, Yiying Tong, and Kun Zhou, “FaceWarehouse: a 3D Facial Expression Database for Visual Computing,” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 20, no. 3 (2014): 413–425.
Paul Ekman Group, “Micro Expressions,” ➝.
The term “in the wild” refers to machine learning data that has not been recorded for the research purpose at hand but rather has been collected from other sources to ensure “authenticity.” Publicly accessible sites such as the photo sharing website Flickr or the video platform YouTube are frequented repositories as are corporate datasets such as Uber user data or iRobot’s vacuum cleaner’s indoor maps of clients homes.
Paul Ekman, “How to Spot a Terrorist on the Fly,” Washington Post, October 29, 2006, ➝.
Sharon Weinberger, “Airport security: Intent to deceive?,” Nature 465 (2010): 412–415, ➝.
Nate Anderson, “TSA’s got 94 signs to ID terrorists, but they’re unproven by science,” Ars Technica, November 14, 2013, ➝.
“The human face very obviously displays emotion,” says Maria Hartwig, a psychology professor at the City University of New York's John Jay College of Criminal Justice. But linking those displays to deception is “a leap of gargantuan dimensions not supported by scientific evidence.” See Weinberger, “Airport security,” ➝. The American Civil Liberties Union has filed a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit against TSA in 2015 to obtain documents on SPOT's effectiveness. Hugh Handeyside, staff attorney with the ACLU National Security Project. “The TSA has insisted on keeping documents about SPOT secret, but the agency can’t hide the fact that there’s no evidence the program works. The discriminatory racial profiling that SPOT has apparently led to only reinforces that the public needs to know more about how this program is used and with what consequences for Americans’ rights.” See ACLU, “TSA refusing to release documents about spot program’s effectiveness, racial profiling impact,” March 19, 2015, ➝.
US Government Accountability Office, “TSA Should Limit Future Funding for Behavior Detection Activities,” November 8, 2013, ➝.
David Matsumoto and Hyisung C. Hwang, “Microexpressions Differentiate Truths From Lies About Future Malicious Intent,” Frontiers in Psychology, December 18, 2018, ➝.
Paul Ekman Group, “Micro Expressions,” ➝.
Giambattista della Porta, De Humana Physiognomonia libri IIII (1586), ➝.
Ibid.
Johann Kaspar Lavater, Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe (Verlag Heinrich Steiners und Compagnie, 1783), ➝.
Yilun Wang and Michal Kosinski, “Deep Neural Networks Are More Accurate than Humans at Detecting Sexual Orientation from Facial Images,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114, no. 2 (February 2018): 246–257.
Charles Hymas, “AI used for first time in job interviews in UK to find best applicants,” The Telegraph, September 27, 2019, ➝.
Yi Xu, founder and chief executive of Human, another company offering AI emotion measurement services, said: “An interviewer will have bias, but [with technology
they don’t judge the face but the personality of the applicant.” See “How AI helps recruiters track jobseekers’ emotions,” Financial Times, February 2018, ➝. Loren Larsen, Chief Technology Officer at HireVue, when asked about Unilever using their technology, said: “I would much prefer having my first screening with an algorithm that treats me fairly rather than one that depends on how tired the recruiter is that day.” Hymas, “AI used for first time,” ➝.
Farun Farocki, Die Bewerbung, 1997, ➝.