Charles Bell, The Hand, Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments, as Evincing Design (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1833), 1. Emphasis mine.
I am referring to the debates between Poussinist and Rubenists in the seventeenth century.
Ibid., Bell, 231.
Ibid., 221. Emphasis mine.
Matthew Craske, “Plan and Control: Design and the Competitive Spirit in Early and Midd-Eighteenth-Century England,” Journal of Design History 12.3 (1999): 187–216, especially 180-190.
See “Notice” in Ibid., Bell. The same notice appeared in every volume of the Bridgewater Treatises.
William Paley, Natural Theology. With Illustrative Notes by Henry Lord Brougham and Charles Bell. To which are Added Supplementary Dissertations by Charles Bell with Numerous Woodcuts (London and New York: C. Knight and W. Jackson, 1836). Paradoxically this outlook was as much inherent in Cuvier’s theory of extinction as in Darwin’s theory of evolution.
For an account of materialist and mechanistic explanations in Germany at this time, see Frederick Gregory, Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Dordrecht and Boson: D. Reidel, 1977).
See, for example, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Sämmtliche Schriften, vol. 5, Wie Gertrud ihre Kinder lehrt: Ein Versuch den Müttern Anleitung zu geben, ihre Kinder selbst zu unterrichten (Stuttgart and Tübingen: Gottaschen, 1820).
Furthermore, as Marjorie Lamberti has demonstrated, religion never lost its prominence in elementary and secondary education even as late as the Weimar Republic. See Marjorie Lamberti, State, Society, and Elementary School in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Thomas A. Howard, Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
Adalbert Falk, “Die Reform der Preussischen Volksschule vom October 15 1872,” Annalen des deutschen Reiches für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Statistik (Leipzig: Georg Hirth, 1873): 897-940.
David Blackbourn, Populists and Patricians: Essays in Modern German History (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict: Culture, Ideology, Politics, 1870-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995); and Michael B. Gross, The War Against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholics Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004).
David Blackbourn, Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Nineteenth-Century Germany (New York: Knopf, 1994).
Hermann Grimm, “Die Umgestaltung der Universitätsvorlesungen über neuere Kunstgeschichte durch die Anwendung des Skioptikons,” (1892-1893) Beiträge zur deutschen Culturgeschichte (Berlin: Wilhelm Herz, 1897): 298.
Franz Carl Hillardt, Stigmographie. Das Schreiben und Zeichnen nach Punkten. Eine neue Methode (Kohlmarkt: Mueller, 1846).
I am thinking here of Wilhelm von Debschitz and Hermann Obrist’s Debschitzschule in Munich (founded in 1902), Henry van de Velde’s Kunstgewerbliches Seminar in Weimar (founded in 1902 and converted into the Bauhaus in 1919), the Ažbè Schule (founded 1891), the Lothar von Kunowski Schule (founded 1902), Kandinsky’s Phalanx-Schule (founded 1901), August Endell’s Formschule in Berlin (founded 1904), etc. For histories of these schools, see Hans M. Wingler, ed., Kunstschulreform 1900-1933 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1977) and John V. Maciuika, Before the Bauhaus: Architecture, Politics, and the German State, 1890–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
This was true of most German universities as well. See James C. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women: Secondary and Higher Education in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988) and the statistics presented in W. H. R. A. Lexis, A General View of the History and Organisation of Public Education in the German Empire, trans. G. J. (Tamson, Berlin: A. Asher, 1904).
Transcription of Walter Gropius, “Raumkunde,” Bauhaus-Archiv Berlin, GS 20, Mappe 21, 1.
Oskar Schlemmer to Otto Meyer, letter dated February 3, 1921, The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer, selected and edited by Tut Schlemmer, trans. Krishna Winston (Evanstan, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972), 98.
Walter Gropius, Scope of Total Architecture (New York: Harper and Broth, 1955), 145.
Superhumanity, a project by e-flux Architecture at the 3rd Istanbul Design Biennial, is produced in cooperation with the Istanbul Design Biennial, the National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, Korea, the Govett-Brewster Art Gallery, New Zealand, and the Ernst Schering Foundation.